National survey finds zero manual scavengers; sewer deaths and FIRs persist

Manual scavenging — the caste-based practice of manually cleaning, carrying, or disposing of human excreta from dry latrines, open drains, railway tracks, and sewers — is one of India's most persistent forms of occupational discrimination rooted in the caste hierarchy. It directly violates Articles 14, 17, and 21 of the Constitution: Article 17 abolishes untouchability, and the Supreme Court has held that compelling individuals to perform manual scavenging constitutes untouchability in practice.

The first legislative attempt at prohibition was the Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Act, 1993, which proved largely ineffective due to a narrow definition, weak enforcement, and the exclusion of sewer and septic tank cleaning from its ambit. Parliament replaced it with the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (MS Act, 2013) — a substantially stronger law that broadened the definition of manual scavenging, mandated local-authority surveys, established rehabilitation entitlements (cash assistance, scholarships, housing, and livelihood training), and created criminal penalties for violations. The Supreme Court's judgment in Safai Karamchari Andolan v. Union of India (2014) reinforced the state's obligation to identify, rehabilitate, and compensate manual scavengers and the families of those who died in sewer accidents.