"Nepal Flood Reconstruction Raises Climate Justice and Regional Diplomacy Questions"
Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF)
sudden, large-scale release of water from a lake dammed by ice or moraine debris.
Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) system
transboundary mountain system spanning eight countries, source of Asia's major rivers.
The Himalayas are geologically young fold mountains that are still rising and remain highly unstable. Rocks are loosely consolidated, slopes are steep, and the region sits on active seismic zones. These physical conditions make Himalayan disasters fundamentally different from those in older mountain systems like the Western Ghats, which face landslides mainly from intense rainfall on laterite soils. The Himalayas face a wider range of triggers: earthquakes, glacial melt, ice-rock avalanches, and sudden lake breaches. Layered on top of this structural instability is accelerated climate change. The Himalayan region is warming at roughly twice the global average rate, destabilising glaciers across Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, and Tibet.
Nepal is home to over 3,000 glaciers, at least 21 of which are considered critically vulnerable. These glaciers are part of the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) system, spanning Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. As glaciers melt, meltwater accumulates in unstable lakes held back by ice or moraine dams. When such a dam fails, the result is a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF). GLOFs release millions of cubic metres of water and debris within minutes, destroying roads, bridges, hydropower infrastructure, and entire settlements in narrow mountain valleys. The Bhotekoshi and Trishuli rivers, originating near the Nepal-Tibet border, are classic GLOF-prone corridors. Rivers like the Yamuna, Chenab, and Nubra, fed by glaciers such as Bandarpunch, Bara Shigri, and Siachen respectively, carry the same downstream risks across the broader HKH arc.
The international legal framework for addressing these risks has evolved over decades. The UNFCCC (1992) enshrined the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC), recognising that countries most responsible for emissions must bear greater obligations. The Paris Agreement (2015) acknowledged the special vulnerability of mountainous and small states. The Loss and Damage mechanism, operationalised at COP27 (2022) and further developed at COP28 (2023), was designed for irreversible harm that cannot be addressed through adaptation alone. Despite these frameworks, actual financial flows to vulnerable nations remain far below what is needed.
A GLOF is triggered when the natural dam holding a glacial lake, made of ice or compacted moraine, fails suddenly. The failure can be caused by an earthquake, an ice or rock avalanche falling into the lake, or simply the gradual weakening of the dam as temperatures rise. The resulting flood carries not just water but enormous quantities of sediment, boulders, and debris. In narrow gorges like the Bhotekoshi valley, flood velocity and debris load are amplified, leaving almost no warning time for downstream communities.
The Tibetan Plateau is the headwater source for most of South Asia's major rivers, including the Brahmaputra, Indus, and upper Ganga tributaries. China, as the upper-riparian state, monitors over 3,000 glacial lakes on the Plateau, of which 187 are classified as high-risk. However, there is no automatic, treaty-bound data-sharing protocol between China and Nepal or India. India and China have managed shared river basins through discretionary Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) on hydrological data, covering rivers like the Brahmaputra and Sutlej. …
Consider the following pairs:
Glacier — River
1.Bandarpunch — Yamuna
2.Bara Shigri — Chenab
3.Milam — Mandakini
4.Siachen — Nubra
5.Zemu — Manas
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
'Clean energy is the order of the day.' Describe briefly India's changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics.
Consider the following pairs:
Glacier — River
1.Bandarpunch — Yamuna
2.Bara Shigri — Chenab
3.Milam — Mandakini
4.Siachen — Nubra
5.Zemu — Manas
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
With reference to the Loss and Damage mechanism under the UNFCCC framework, consider the following statements:
1.The Loss and Damage mechanism was first operationalised at COP27 held in 2022.
2.It is designed to address irreversible climate harm that cannot be managed through adaptation alone.
3.The mechanism is funded exclusively by developed nations under a legally binding obligation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Consider the following statements regarding the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) glacial system:
1.The HKH system spans six countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.
2.Nepal contributes less than 0.5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions.
3.The Himalayan region is warming at approximately twice the global average rate.
4.Nepal has over 3,000 glaciers, of which at least 21 are considered critically vulnerable.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Consider the following statements regarding the CBDR-RC principle:
1.CBDR-RC stands for Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities.
2.It is enshrined in the Paris Agreement (2015), not the UNFCCC (1992).
3.Under this principle, developed nations are expected to take the lead in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Which of the following correctly describes the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?
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