Political fragmentation of North India and the Arab, Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions that set up the Sultanate
Political Fragmentation of North India before the Turkish Invasions
The Basics
By the 10th and 11th centuries, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Pala and Rashtrakuta empires had broken down. The Pratihara empire's collapse gave rise to many Rajput kingdoms across North India. Each ruled a compact territory, but none dominated the whole region. The term Rajput comes from Rajaputra, meaning son of a king. It described lineage-based warrior clans who traced descent, real or invented, from a common ancestor. Some clans, called Agnikula clans, claimed descent from a sacrificial fire on Mount Abu. These were the Pratiharas, the Chahamanas or Chauhans of Ajmer, the Chandellas of Bundelkhand, and the Paramaras of Malwa. Bardic tradition counted about thirty-six Rajput clans in all. These included the Gahadavalas of Kanauj, the Tomaras of Delhi, the Chalukyas or Solankis of Gujarat, and the Kalachuris around Jabalpur. Bengal remained separately under the Palas and later the Senas.
By the early eleventh century, Mahmud of Ghazni's raids had made north-west India a familiar, if battered, frontier for scholars and soldiers from Central Asia and Persia. Mahmud's court at Ghazni gathered learned men alongside his military commanders, so conquest and scholarship travelled together.
By the mid-twelfth century, a new wave of Turkish tribes broke Seljuk power in Central Asia. Two powers rose in the resulting vacuum: the Khwarizmi empire in Iran and the Ghurid empire in Ghur, northwest Afghanistan. The Ghurids had once been vassals of Ghazni but broke free of that control. Their ruler Alauddin, called 'jahan-soz' or the world-burner, burnt Ghazni in revenge for wrongs done to his brothers. Khwarizm Shah's seizure of Khurasan blocked Ghurid expansion in Central Asia. This pushed Ghurid ambitions toward India instead.
By the late 1180s, Prithviraj Chauhan ruled Ajmer and Delhi. His kingdom was the strongest Rajput power facing the Punjab frontier. Muhammad Ghori, also called Muizzuddin Muhammad, held the Punjab after displacing the Ghaznavids. A dispute over the fort of Tabarhinda made conflict between the two rulers inevitable.
By the late twelfth century, north India was divided among several strong Rajput kingdoms. Each was proud of its martial tradition but unwilling to act with others. This fragmentation explains why individual victories, such as Prithviraj Chauhan's win at the First Battle of Tarain in 1191, did not bring lasting security.
After Tarain, Turkish armies pushed to complete control of the Ganga valley. Between 1192 and 1206, they extended rule over the Ganga-Jamuna doab and nearby areas. On the way, they defeated the Gahadavala ruler Jaichandra of Kanauj, at the Battle of Chandwar (c. 1194). Bihar and Bengal lay further east, still outside Turkish control. Attention soon turned there.